Individual Assignment Current Events in Business Essay Example for Free

Individual Assignment Current Events in Business Essay Write a 300-word summary of the business research process by describingthe business research process from your experience in the workplace or in an article you find through the University Library. Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines. You can meet lots of people by taking advantage of orientation social events. Heading off to a college where you know no one can be a daunting and isolating experience. By participating in social activities right away, you will be able to meet others who are in the same boat and looking to make friends.

Tsarist system of government Essay Example for Free

Tsarist system of government Essay The Tsarist system of government underwent many changes throughout the years of 1881-1914. Both Alexander III and Nicholas II created several modifications, being both good and bad, to the government during these years. Alexander III created mostly negative changes, due to him being seen as a reactionary, whereas Nicholas II created mainly positive changes to the government as a result of the 1905 revolution. These changes can be categorised into political, economic and social modifications. Alexander III made a few political modifications to the Tsarist government. In 1851, he introduced Land Captains. These meant that people, sometimes locals, could be appointed to have more power over the people within their towns or cities, meaning power was seemingly being more wide spread. However, these lands captains were chosen by the Tsar himself, meaning he could manipulate who had extra power based on what he wanted. Therefore, some could argue that this was a negative modification made to the government. Alexander III also introduced the Manifesto of Unshakeable Autocracy in 1881. This showed the Tsars rejection of democracy and further reform, meaning he had further influence and power over everyone else. He also introduced the Statue of State Security in 1881, which allowed for the Okhrana to have more powers. For example, the Okhrana was now able to break into people’s houses without reason or their consent, meaning the government had further control over the population of Russia. Although Alexander III’s political reforms were mostly bad, the introduction of the Land Captains meant that his power was in fact becoming more widespread amongst the population of Russia, and not all of Russia’s power was given to one person. Therefore, the political reforms made by Alexander III showed a slight modification the government during his reign. Nicholas II also introduced several political reforms. These took place after the 1905 revolution. In 1905, Nicholas issued the October manifesto. This gave people a lot more freedom than they previously had. Freedom of speech, organisation and assembly was now made legal; allowing opposition groups to now be able to be more organised as they were allowed to meet in public. Nicholas also introduced the fundamental laws in 1906, which allowed for the government to become more democratic. Under the fundamental laws, Article 87 was introduced, giving the Tsar the complete right to exercise any policy that he wished, without having to gain permission from the Dumas beforehand. The first State Duma was also introduced under Nicholas II in April 1906, which allowed for the population of Russia to have more of a say in the governments decisions. It was believed that the Duma was a step forwards towards a democracy for Russia; however, the Tsar could change and manipulate the Dumas in whatever way he wished through the use of Article 87, mean they were only put in place to make Russia seem more democratic when in reality it was not. Nicholas II also introduced a pro-government terrorist group called the Black Hundreds in 1905, meaning the government had further control over Russia as they were willing to use violence to get what they wanted. All of these new policies introduced by Nicholas seemed like positive reforms, however Article 87 meant that the Tsar could still pass laws and policies without consulting the Dumas beforehand, so really the Tsar and his power still heavily remained in Russia. The modifications made by Nicholas II throughout the years of his reign drastically changed the Tsarist government, showing the fact that Nicholas’ modifications greatly impacted the Tsarist government. Both of the Tsars between the years 1881-1914 also introduced a range of economic reforms. Under Alexander III were Witte, Bunge and Vysknegradsky. Witte made several economic reforms, including the building of the Trans-Siberian railway in 1891, the increase of foreign loans, the gold standard and industrialisation. All of these meant that Russia was now becoming a much richer country, with more exports going to other countries. The production of coal, iron and oil was majorly increased, meaning the country had a lot more sources of income other than just agriculture. The building of the railway meant that trade was much easier, and therefore the countries income was increased as a result. Despite all of Witte’s efforts, Russia still lagged behind other great powers economically, and therefore the economic policies put in place did improve Russia but not as much as Witte intended. Also, Alexander III introduced the Peasants Land Bank in 1862, which meant that peasants would now find it easier to rent land. However, they still had a difficult time paying this back and not many peasants owned land after this was put in place, the majority of land was still owned by the major, richer landowners. As a result, this shows a major change to the government during Alexander’s reign as a wide range of economic policies were introduced by Witte which dramatically improved the countries overall income and as a result Russia was much better off as a country. Nicholas II also put various economic changes in place. These were under Stolypin, who changed a great deal for Russia and put a lot of policies in place. One economic policy which was put in place by Stolypin was the ending of redemption payments for peasants to pay to the Mir in 1907. This in turn meant that peasants had more money to put towards land and farms, meaning they could make more income and not lose any money due to having to make redemption payments. Stolypin also introduced loans for peasants which were easier for peasants to get hold of. This meant that they could own more land and were encouraged to own a farm, and therefore would have an increased income as a result of this. Also, the peasants easily would have been able to pay off these loans due to having an increased income, so as a result peasants were no longer as poor as before. This however can be counter-argued by saying that in 1906-14, only 25% of peasants owned lots of land/farms, showing that this policy did not fully do what was originally intended. Also, the richest 10% of landowners still owned majority of the land, meaning not much of it actually belonged to the peasants. Nicholas II therefore made several economic modifications to the government during his reign which attempted to benefit the peasants of Russia. However, although most of these changes were beneficial to Russia, some of them did not take the desired effect; for example Nicholas II tried to make peasants gain more land, but figures show that majority of the land was still owned by the richest land owners and not peasants. Finally, both Alexander and Nicholas introduced a range of social reforms. Alexander III introduced the policy of Russification in 1883. This meant that the official language of Russia was Russian, and all schools and documents had to be written in Russian; any other language was not allowed. This meant that other cultures and other languages were repressed, as someone could not speak the language of their home country within Russia. This then would have created a further breeding ground for more opposition to the Tsarist rule, so Russification had negative effects on Russia and on the Tsarist government. Alexander III also emancipated the serfs in 188. This was a major social reform for the serfs as it now meant that they had a lot more freedom and were no longer enslaved by serfdom. However, it can be argued that the serfs were no actually freed. The now ex-serfs were still tied to the land, meaning they still had to work on that land for the land owners and they therefore were not actually free. Also, ex-serfs had to pay redemption payments on the land they used to be tied to, so they are having to compensate the government. As a result of these modifications, the Tsarist government was modified in many ways based on Alexander’s social reforms, even if all of his reforms made were not as beneficial as originally thought. Nicholas II also introduced many social reforms. Under Stolypin, Nicholas introduced the policy of every head of each household inheriting some land. As a result, each family would then therefore have some land ownership within the family, meaning they had some source of income if no other sources of income are obtainable. This was a positive reform made by Nicholas II as not as many people faced poverty and poor living conditions and therefore they overall had a better life. Another reform made by Stolypin under Nicholas II was the demolition of the Mir. These meant that peasants had to live within a Mir and had a lot of restrictions based on where they could go and when they could leave. Stolypin got rid of Mir’s in 1908, which as a result gave peasants a lot more freedom than they previously had. The social reforms made by Nicholas II were overall positive as they greatly benefited the population of Russia; mainly the peasants. This then shows that the Tsarist government did face many modifications throughout the years 1881-1914 as Nicholas put in place many social reforms which greatly changed how Russian peasants lived. Overall, it is clearly evident that several modifications were made to the Tsarist government in the years 1881-1914, which were made by both Alexander III and Nicholas II. These took form in political, economic and social changes, and some had positive effects whereas others had negative effects. However, not all of the reforms put in place fully did what they were originally intended to do, and therefore the modifications were drastically made but not to the extent in which they were intended to do so.

Cyclic Voltammetry Principle

Cyclic Voltammetry Principle Cyclic voltammetry is the most widely used technique for acquiring qualitative information about electrochemical reactions [34, 35]. The power of cyclic voltammetry results from its ability to provide considerable information on the thermodynamics and kinetics of heterogeneous electron transfer reactions [47, 48], and coupled chemical reactions [36, 37]. It also provides mathematical analysis of an electron transfer process at an electrode [41, 49, 50]. Basic Principle of Cyclic voltammetry An electron transfer process with a single step may be represented as; O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R (2.1) where O and R are oxidized and reduced form of electoractive species respectively, which either is soluble in solution or absorbed on the electrode surface and are transported by diffusion alone. Cyclic voltammetry consists of scanning linearly the potential of a stationary working electrode (in an unstirred solution), using a triangular potential waveform. Depending on the information sought, single or multiple cycles can be used. During the potential sweep, the potentiostat measures the current resulting from the applied potential. The resulting plot of current vs. potential is termed as cyclic voltammogram. The excitation signal in cyclic voltammetry is given in Fig. 2.1a. Initially the potential of the electrode is Ei. Then the potential is swept linearly at the rate of ÃŽÂ ½ volts per second. In cyclic voltammetry reversal technique is carried out by reversing direction of scan after a certain time t =ÃŽÂ » .The potential at any time E (t) is given by E (t) = Ei ÃŽÂ ½t t E (t) = Ei 2ÃŽÂ ½ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ » + ÃŽÂ ½t tà ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ » (2.2b) HereÃŽÂ ½ is scan rate in V/s. The shape of the resulting cyclic voltammogram can be qualitatively explained as follows: When potential is increased from the region where oxidized form O is stable, cathodic current starts to flow as potential approaches E0 for R/O couple until a cathodic peak is reached. After traversing the potential region in which the reduction process takes place, the direction of potential sweep is reversed. The reaction-taking place in the forward scan can be expressed as O + e- à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ R During the reverse scan, R molecule (generated in the forward half cycle, and accumulated near the surface) is reoxidized back to O and anodic peak results. R à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ® O + e- In the forward scan as potential moves past Eo, the near-electrode concentration of O falls to zero, the mass transfer of O reaches a maximum rate, in unstirred solution, this rate then declines as the depletion of O further and further from electrode takes place. Before dropping again current passes through a maximum. Reversal of scan repeats the above sequence of events for the oxidation of electrochemically generated R that now predominates in near-electrode region. The continuous change in the surface concentration is coupled with an expansion of the diffusion layer thickness (as expected in the quiescent solutions). The resulting current peaks thus reflect the continuous change of the concentration gradient with time, hence, the increase to the peak current corresponds to the achievement of diffusion control, while the current drop (beyond the peak) exhibits a t-1/2 dependence (independent of the applied potential). For the above reasons, the reversal current has the same shape as the forward one. Electrochemical Cell Electrochemical cell is a sealed vessel which is designed to prevent the entry of air. It has an inlet and outlet to allow the saturation of solution with an inert gas, N2 or Ar. Removal of O2 is usually necessary to prevent currents due to the reduction of O2 interfering with response from system under study. The standard electrochemical cell consists of three electrodes immersed in an electrolyte; Working electrode (WE) Reference electrode (RE) Counter electrode (CE) Working Electrode (WE) The performance of the voltammetric procedure is strongly influenced by the working electrode material. Since the reaction of interest (reduction or oxidation) takes place on working electrode, it should provide high signal to noise characteristics, as well as a reproducible response. Thus, its selection depends primarily on two factors: the redox behaviour of the target analyte and the background current over the potential region required for the measurement. Other considerations include the potential window, electrical conductivity, surface reproducibility, mechanical properties, cost, availability and toxicity. A range of materials have found application as working electrodes for electroanalysis, the most popular are those involving mercury, carbon or noble metals (particularly platinum and gold). Reference Electrode (RE) This functional electrode has a constant potential so it can be used as reference standard against which potential of other electrode present in the cell can be measured. Commonly used reference electrodes are silver-silver chloride or the calomel electrode. Counter of Auxiliary Electrode (CE) It is also termed as auxiliary electrode and serves as source or sink for electrons so that current can be passed from external circuit through the cell. The potential at WE is monitored and controlled very precisely with respect to RE via potentiostat. This may be controlled in turn via interfacing with a computer. The desired waveform is imposed on the potential at the WE by a waveform generator. The potential drop V is usually measured by the current flowing between the WE and CE across a resistor R (from which (I=V/R), the latter connected in series with the two electrodes. The resulting I/V trace, termed as a voltammogram is then either plotted out via an XY chart recorder or, where possible, retained in a computer to allow any desired data manipulation prior to hard copy being taken. Single Electron Transfer Process Three types of single electron transfer process can be studied. Reversible process Irreversible process Quasi-reversible process Based on values of electrochemical parameters, i.e. peak potential Ep, half peak potential (Ep/2), half wave potential (E1/2), peak current (ip), anodic peak potential Epa, cathodic peak potential Epc etc, it can be ascertained whether a reaction is reversible, irreversible or quasi-reversible. Ep is the potential corresponding to peak current ip, Ep/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.5 ip, E1/2 is the potential corresponding to 0.85 ip. These  electrochemical parameters can be graphically obtained from the voltammogram as shown in the Fig. 2.2. Reversible Process The heterogeneous transfer of electron from an electrode to a reducible species and vice versa O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R is a form of Nernstian electrode reaction with assumption that at the surface of electrode, rate of electron transfer is so rapid that a dynamic equilibrium is established and Nernstian condition holds i.e. CO(0,t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ CR(0,t) = Exp[(nFà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢RT)(Ei-ÃŽÂ ½t-Eo)] (2.3) In equation (2.3), Co and CR are concentration of oxidized and reduced species at the surface of electrode as a function of time, Eo is the standard electrode potential, Ei is the initial potential and ÃŽÂ ½ is the scan rate in volts per second. Under these conditions, the oxidized and reduced species involved in an electrode reaction are in equilibrium at the electrode surface and such an electrode reaction is termed as a reversible reaction. Current Expression Due to difference in concentration of electroactive species at the surface of electrode and the concentration in the bulk, diffusion controlled mass transport takes place. Ficks second law can be applied to obtain time dependent concentration distribution in one dimension of expanding diffusion layer. à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ci(x, t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡t = Dià ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡2Ci(x, t) à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬Å¡x2 (2.4) Peak current is a characteristic quantity in reversible cyclic voltammetric process. The current expression is obtained by solving Ficks law [51]. i = nFACo*(à Ã¢â€š ¬Doa)1/2 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) (2.5) where i = current, n = number of electrons transferred, A is the area of electrode, Co* is the bulk concentration of oxidized species, Do is the diffusion coefficient, à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡ (at) is the current function and a = nFÃŽÂ ½/RT At 298K, function à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) and the current potential curve reaches their maximum for the reduction process at a potential which is 28.5/n mV more negative than the half wave potential i.e. at n(Ep-E1/2) = 28.50 mV, à Ã¢â€š ¬1/2à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(at) = 0.4463 ( Table 2.1). Then the current expression for the forward potential scan becomes (2.6) where ip is the peak current or maximum current. Using T=298K, Area (A) in cm2, Diffusion coefficient (Do) in cm2/s, concentration of species O (Co*) in moles dm-3 and Scan rate (ÃŽÂ ½) in volts sec-1, equation (2.6) takes the following form, (2.7) Equation (2.7) is called Randles Sevick equation [39, 40]. Diagnostic Criteria of Reversibility Certain well-defined characteristic values can be obtained from the voltammogram, for a reversible electrochemical reaction. Relationship between peak potential (Ep) and half wave potential (E1/2) for a reversible reaction is given by, (2.8a) (2.8b) Where E1/2 is potential corresponding to i = 0.8817ip [41]. At 298 K (2.8c) From equations (2.8a) and (2.8b) one obtains, (2.9a) At 298K (2.9b) The peak voltage position does not alter as scan rate varies. In some cases, the precise determination of peak potential Ep is not easy because the observed CV peak is somewhat broader. So it is sometimes more convenient to report the potential at i = 0.5ip called half peak potential, which can be used for E1/2 determination [52]. (2.10a) At 298 K (2.10b) (2.10c) From equations (2.8a) and (2.10a) we obtain, (2.11a) At 298K (2.11b) The diagnostic criterion of single electron transfer reversible reaction is often sufficient to get qualitative as well as quantitative information about the thermodynamic and kinetic parameters of the system. For a reversible system, should be independent of the scan rate, however, it is found that generally increases with à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ®. This is due to presence of finite solution resistance between the reference and the working electrode. Irreversible Process For a totally irreversible process, reverse reaction of the electrode process does not occur. Actually for this type of reaction the charge transfer rate constant is quite small, i.e. ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ £ 10-5cm sec-1, hence charge transfer is extremely low and current is mainly controlled by the rate of charge transfer reaction. Nernst equation is not applicable for such type of reaction. The process can be best described by the following reaction O + ne à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¾Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ® R Delahay [51] and later on Mastuda, Ayabe [48], and Reinmuth [53] described the stationary electrode voltammetric curves of the irreversible process. Irreversibility can be diagnosed by three major criteria. A shift in peak potential occurs as the scan rate varies. Half peak width for an irreversible process is given by (2.12) Here ÃŽÂ ± is transfer coefficient and na is the number of electrons involved in rate determining step of charge transfer process. At 298K (2.13) Current expression is given as, i = nFACo*(à Ã¢â€š ¬Dob)1/2 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) (2.14) The function à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) goes through a maximum at à Ã¢â€š ¬1/2à Ã¢â‚¬ ¡(bt) = 0.4958.(Table 2.2). Introduction of this value in equation (2.14) yields the expression (2.15) for the peak  current. A plot of ln ip vs. (Ep-Eo) for different scan rates would be a straight line with a slope proportional to -à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡naF and an intercept proportional to ks,h. Quasi-reversible Process Quasi-reversible process is termed as a process which shows intermediate behaviour between reversible and irreversible processes. Both charge transfer and mass transfer control current of the reaction. For quasi-reversible process value of standard heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h lies between 10-1 to 10-5 cm sec-1[42]. Cyclic voltammogram for quasi-reversible process is shown in Fig. 2.3. An expression relating the current to potential dependent charge transfer rate was first provided by Matsuda and Ayabe [48]. (2.17) where, ksh is the heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant at standard potential Eo of redox system,is the transfer coefficient and à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢ = 1- à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡. In this case, the shape of the peak and the various peak parameters are functions of à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡ and the dimensionless parameter à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’, defined as [54] (2.18) For quasi-reversible process current value is expressed as a function of. (2.19) where is expressed as (2.20) is shown in Fig. 2.4. It is observed that when à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ > 10, the behavior approaches that of a reversible system. It is observed that for a quasi-reversible reaction, ip is not proportional to à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ®1/2. For half peak potential we have at 298K (2.21) This implies, These parameters attain limiting values characteristic of reversible or totally irreversible processes as à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ varies. For à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’ >10, à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾(à ¯Ã‚ Ã…’,à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡) = 2.2 which gives Ep-Ep/2 = 56.5mV (value characteristic of a reversible wave). For Variation of Ά with Άº and ÃŽÂ ± is shown in Fig. 2.5. For three types of electrode processes Matsuda and Ayabe [48] suggested following zone boundaries. a) Reversible (Nernstian) ΆºÃƒ ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³15; ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 0.3 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2cm s-1 b) Quasi-Reversible 15à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ Άº à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 10-2 (1+ÃŽÂ ±); 0.3 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2 à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ ksh à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ 2 10-5 à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1/2 cm s-1 c) Totally Irreversible Άº Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 225. Source: Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R. Electrochemical Methods, Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley, New York, 1980, pp 227. Multi Electron Transfer Process Multi-electron transfer process usually takes place in two separate steps. Two-steps mechanism, each step characterized by its own electrochemical parameters is called EE mechanism. Stepwise reversible EE mechanism is given by following reaction, A + n1e à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ B (E10) (2.22a) B + n2e à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ C (E20) (2.22b) where, A and B are electroactive species and n1 and n2 are the number of electrons involved in successive steps. If A and B react at sufficiently separated potentials with A more easily reducible than B, the voltammogram for overall reduction of A to C consists of two separated waves. The first wave corresponds to the reduction of A to B with n1 electrons and in this potential range the substance B diffuses into the solution. As potential is scanned towards more cathodic values, a second wave appears which is made up of two superimposed parts. The current related to substance A, which is still diffusing toward electrode increases since this species now is reduced directly to substance C by (n1+n2) electrons. In addition, substance B, which was the product of the first wave, can be reduced in this potential region and a portion of this material diffuses back towards the electrode and reacts. Each heterogeneous electron transfer step is associated with its own electrochemical parameters i.e. ks,hi and ÃŽÂ ±i, where i =1, 2 for the 1st and 2nd electron transfer respectively. Based on the value of à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Eo, we come across three different types of cases [50] as shown in the Fig. 2.6. Types of Two Electron Transfer Reactions [50] Case 1: Separate Peaks When à ¯Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Eo à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ³ -150mV the EE mechanism is termed as disproportionate mechanism [55]. Cyclic voltammogram consists of two typical one-electron reduction waves. The heterogeneous electron transfer reaction may simultaneously be accompanied by homogenous electron transfer reactions, which in multi-electron system leads to disproportionation. Each disproportionation reaction can be described as, 2R1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ O+ R2 (2.23) The equilibrium constant K (disproportionation constant) is given by (2.24) It can be derived from the difference between the standard potentials using (2.25) Case 2: In this case, the individual waves merge into one broad distorted wave whose peak height and shape are no longer characteristics of a reversible wave. The wave is broadened similar to an irreversible wave, but can be distinguished from the irreversible voltammogram, in that the distorted wave does not shift on the potential axis as a function of the scan rate. Case 3: = 0mV Single peak In this case, in cyclic voltammogram, only a single wave would appear with peak current intermediate between those of a single step one electron and two electron transfer reactions and Ep-Ep/2 = 21 mV. Case 4: E1o If the energy required for the first second electron transfer is less than that for the first, one wave is observed having peak height equal to 23/2 times that of a single electron transfer process. In this case, Ep E1/2 = 14.25 mV. The effective E0 for the composite two electron wave is given by [50]. Source: Polcyn, D.S.; Shain, I. J. Anal. Chem. 1966, 38, 370. Cyclic Voltammetric Methods for the Determination of Heterogeneous Electron Transfer Rate Constant Cyclic voltammetry provides a systematic approach to solution of diffusion problems and determination of different kinetic parameters including ks,h. Various methods are reported in literature to determine heterogeneous rate constants. Nicholson [41, 42], Gileadi [56] and Kochi [37] developed different equations to calculate heterogeneous electron transfer rate constants. Nicholsons Method [41, 42] Nicholson derived an expression for determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant ksh. This method is based on correlation between and ks,h through a dimensionless parameter by following equation, (2.26) where is scan rate. for different values of ΆEp can be obtained from the Table 2.3. Hence, if ΆEp (Epa-Epc) is determined from the voltammogram, can be known from Table 2.3. From the knowledge of, , ksh can be calculated using equation (2.27). If D o= DR then ÃŽÂ ³=1 (2.27) This method is applied for voltammograms having peak separation in the range of 57mV to 250mV, and between this range, the electrode process progresses from reversible to irreversible. With increasing scan rate, the peak separation and hence à Ã‹â€  decreases. It can be seen from the Table 2.3, that for reversible reactions i.e. for the current voltage curves and is independent of . For totally irreversible reaction i.e. for the back reaction becomes unimportant, anodic peak and is not observed. For quasi-reaction i.e. for 0. 001 Separation of cathodic and anodic peak potential as a function of the kinetic parameter à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹ in the cyclic voltammogram at room temperature. Kochis Method Kochi and Klinger [37] formulated another correlation between the rate constant for heterogeneous electron transfer and peak separation. The expression for ksh given by Kochi was (2.28) The standard rate constant ksh can be calculated from the difference of peak potentials and the sweep rates directly. This equation applies only to sweep rates which are large enough to induce electrode irreversibility. The relation derived by Kochi is based on following expressions derived by Nicholson and Shain [41]. (2.29a) (2.29b) where ÃŽÂ ² = 1-ÃŽÂ ± , and à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ is the scan rate. Equations (2.29a) and (2.29b) yield (2.30) This expression is used for the determination of the transfer coefficient. Assuming that (for reversible reaction). We have, (2.31) Gileadis Method Gileadi [56] formulated a more sophisticated method for the determination of heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant, ks,h, using the idea of critical scan rate, c. This method can be used in the case where anodic peak is not observed. When reversible heterogeneous electron transfer process is studied at increasing scan rates, peak potential values also vary and process progresses towards irreversible. If are plotted against the logarithm of scan rates, a straight line at low scan rates and ascending curve at higher scan rate is obtained. Extrapolation of both curves intersects them at a point known as toe. This toe corresponds to the logarithm of critical scan rate, c. as shown in Fig. 2.7. Hence critical scan rate can be calculated experimentally. ks,h can be calculated as, (2.32) where à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦c is the critical scan rate, ÃŽÂ ± is a dimensionless parameter, called transfer coefficient and Do is the diffusion coefficient. Coupled Chemical Reactions Although charge transfer processes are an important part of entire spectrum of chemical reactions, they seldom occur as isolated elementary steps. Electron transfer reactions coupled with new bond formation or bond breaking steps are very frequent. The occurrence of such chemical reactions, which directly affect the available surface concentration of the electroactive species, is common to redox processes of many important organic and inorganic compounds. Changes in the shape of the cyclic voltammogram resulting from the chemical competition for the electrochemical reactant  or product, can be extremely useful for elucidating the reaction pathways and for providing reliable chemical information about reactive intermediates [35]. It is convenient to classify the different possible reaction schemes in which homogeneous reactions are associated with the heterogeneous electrons transfer steps by using letters to signify the nature of the step. E represents an electron transfer at the electrode surface, and C represents a homogenous chemical reaction. While O and R indicate oxidized and reduced forms of the electroactive species, other non electroactive species which result from the coupled chemical complication are indicated by W, Y, Z, etc [57]. The order of C with respect to E then follows the chronological order in which the two events occur [58]. So according to sequence of step, the systems are classified as EC, ECE, CE etc. These reactions are further classified on basis of reversibility. For example, subclasses of EC reactions can be distinguished depending on whether the reactions are reversible (r), quasi-reversible (q), or irreversible (i), for example Er Cr, ErCi, EqCi, etc. Two Steps Coupled Chemical Reactions In two steps reactions, a variety of possibilities exist, which include chemical reactions following or preceding a reversible or an irreversible electron transfer [59, 60, 61, 62]. The chemical reactions themselves may be reversible or irreversible. a) Preceding Chemical Reactions (CE) In a preceding chemical reaction, the species O is the product resulting from a chemical reaction. Such a reaction influences the amount of O to be reduced so forward peak is perturbed. For a preceding chemical reaction, two mechanisms are possible, depending on whether the electron transfer is reversible CrEr or irreversible CrEi [58]. Reversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (CrEr Reaction) The process in which a homogeneous chemical reaction precedes a reversible electron transfer is schematized as follows: (2.33) where Y represents the non electroactive species and O and R are the electroactive congeners. Since the supply of electroactive species O results from the chemical reaction, it is important to know that how much of O is formed during the time scale of cyclic voltammogram. In this connection, it must be noted that the time scale of voltammetry is measured by the parameter a = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT for a reversible process and b = ÃŽÂ ±naFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT for a quasi reversible or an irreversible process It means that the time scale of cyclic voltammetry is a function of the scan rate, in the sense that higher the scan rate, the higher is the competition of the voltammetric intervention with respect to the rate of chemical complication. The limit at which the chemical complication can proceed is governed either by the equilibrium constant K or the kinetics of the homogeneous reaction (l = kf+kr). In this regard, it is convenient to distinguish three limiting cases depending on the rate of chemical complication [41]. Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr When K is large (i.e. K > 20) most of O will already be present in solution, the response is apparently not disturbed by the latter, i.e. it appears as a simple reversible electron transfer. When K is small, the small electron transfer again appears as a simple reversible process except that the peak current will be smaller than is expected on the basis of quantity of Y in the solution. This results because the concentration of the electroactive species CO, being determined by the equilibrium of the preceding reaction is equal to a fraction of species Y placed in the solution. where C* = CO (x,0) +CY(x,0) Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) When K is large, once again the response appears as a simple reversible electron transfer, but the measured standard potential Eo/* is shifted toward more negative values compared to the standard potential Eo/ of the couple O/ R by a factor of . When K is small, because of the fast continuous maintaining of the small equilibrium amount of O, the complete depletion of O at the electrode surface will never be reached, so that the forward profile no longer maintains the peak shape form, rather assumes a sigmoidal S-shaped curve, the height of which remains constant at all scan rates. Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) In this case, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and the diffusive currents according to the relationship (2.34) Irreversible Electrode Process Preceded by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (CrEi Reaction) This process is schematizes as. (2.35) In this case, not only the thermodynamic K (kf / kr) and kinetic (kf + kr) parameters of preceding chemical reaction but also the kinetic parameters of the electron transfer (ÃŽÂ ±, k0) play a role. Obviously the lack of reverse peak is immediately apparent, due to the irreversibility of the charge transfer. The curves are also more drawn out because of the electron transfer coefficient, ÃŽÂ ±. Slow preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr In this case, the process appears as a simple irreversible electron transfer. The peak height of the process depends on the equilibrium constant because, as mentioned in the previous case, the concentration of the active species CO is a fraction of the amount C* put in the solution: Fast preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If instead the reaction kinetics is fast, there are two possibilities: If K is large, again the response appears as if the preceding chemical reaction would be absent. However, the peak potential is shifted towards more negative values than those that would be recorded in the absence of the chemical complication by a factor equal to . If K is small, as in the preceding case, an easily recognizable S-like curve voltammogram is obtained having a limiting current independent from the scan rate (2.36) Intermediate preceding chemical reaction (kf+kr = nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) Here again, the kinetics can be studied using the ratio between the kinetic and diffusive currents according to the relationship (2.37) b) Following Chemical Reactions (EC) The process in which the primary product of an electron transfer becomes involved in a chemical reaction is indicated by EC mechanism. It can be represented by O + ne à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ R R à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¹ Z (2.38) where O and R are the electroactive congeners and Z represents the non electroactive species. Several situations are possible depending on the extent of electrochemical reversibility of the electron transfer and on the reversibility or irreversibility of the chemical reaction following the electron transfer. As a general criterion, in cyclic voltammetry, the presence of a following reaction has little influence on the forward peak, whereas it has a considerable effect on the reverse peak. Reversible Electrode Process Followed by a Reversible Chemical Reaction (ErCr Reaction) ErCr mechanism can be written as (2.39) Once again the voltammetric response will differ to a greater or lesser extent with respect to a simple electron transfer depending on the values of either the equilibrium constant, K, or the kinetics of the chemical complication (kf+kr) [58]. Analogously to that discussed for preceding equilibrium reactions, three limiting cases can be distinguished. Slow following chemical reaction (kf+kr If the rate of chemical reaction is low, it has a little effect on the process, thus reducing it a simple reversible electron transfer. Fast following chemical reaction (kf+kr >> nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If the rate of the chemical complication is high, the system will always be in equilibrium and the voltammogram will apparently look like a non complicated reversible electron transfer. However, as a consequence of the continual partial removal of the species R from the electrode surface, the reduction occurs at potential values less negative than that of a simple electron transfer by an amount of . Due to the fast kinetics of the chemical complication, the potential will remain at this value regardless of the scan rate. Intermediate following chemical reaction (kf+kr=nFà Ã¢â‚¬ ¦/RT) If the kinetics of the chemical reaction are intermediate with the scan rate the response gradually shifts from previous value for a fast chemical reaction [which was more anodic by w.r.t. to value of the couple O/R] towards the Eo/ value assuming more and more the values predicted by the relationship (2.40) In other words, the response (which for the fast kinetics is more anodic compared to E0/) due to the competitive effects of the potential scan rate moves towards more cathodic values by 30/n (mV) for every ten fold increase in the scan rate. However, it is noted that at the same time, the reversible peak tends to disappear, in that on increasing the scan rate, the species Z does not have time to restore R. This is demonstrated by the current ratio which is about one at low scan rates, but it tends to zero at high scan rates. Reversible Electrode Process Followed by an Irreversible Chemical R

Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corporation Essay -- Business, Aerospa

Ball Aerospace and Technologies Corporation is a leading provider of Aerospace hardware. They specialize in the design and development in imaging and precision attitude control. Ball Aerospace and DigitalGlobe have been working together since the mid 90’s and Ball has been a key partner in meeting the increased demand for earth imaging and enhancing the geospatial information market. With the success of QuickBird, which was launched in 2001, images as small as 2 feet can be identified. Because of this, the two Companies merged their technologies and started working towards higher resolution capabilities in the aerospace industry. That is how WorldView 1 and WorldView 2 were designed and built. They launched in 2007 and 2009 respectively and are currently in a low earth orbit. Once again DigitalGlobe will be the customer for an additional WorldView (3) , which was awarded to Ball Aerospace and ITT in August of 2010 and the expectations of the satellite are much greater th an the previous two WorldView spacecrafts (De Selding, 2010). Ball is currently in the production phase of WorldView 3, which has an anticipated launch date of 2014-2015. Once complete, it will have the highest resolution camera on a remote sensing satellite in the commercial sector. WorldView 3 is expected to provide DigitalGlobe with higher resolution images much quicker than WorldView 1 or 2. This can be largely attributed to emerging technology and modifications made to the two previous WorldView satellite designs. With minimal changes in design, WorldView 3 can provide images to several government and commercial customers to help with things such as: national defense, land mapping and natural relief. After WorldView 1 was launched in 2007, it ... ...e imagery and also national defense purposes. The impact of all three WorldView satellites has been phenomenal to satellite technologies around the world. Arial views of the earth have come to great lengths in providing customers with fast, clear images. WorldView 1 and 2 has been able to provide commercial businesses and the government with a new technology that can capture images very close to the ground and with high resolution. The demand for the high resolution imagery is so great; DigitalGlobe is already in preliminary discussions about adding a fourth satellite (WorldView 4) to its constellation. The remote sensing spacecraft industry will continue to be an emerging technology for years to come. I would venture to say the aerospace industry in general could also be viewed as an emerging technology as competition in the industry continues to grow.

Garden for the Blind :: Architecture Design Essays

Garden for the Blind When designing a garden for the blind one has to adjust the design to fit the needs for the enjoyment of the garden by the blind. Although the blind have lost their sense of sight, their other senses are heightened tremendously. Adjusting to these heightened senses can be a struggle by itself but can prove to be very beneficial and breathtaking in the end. Many advantages and disadvantages come with this design concept. Overall when designing a garden to be enjoyed by the blind one should focus on creating an atmosphere that adheres greatly to the sense of both smell and sound. The overall structure of the garden for the blind will be snake like. Based on the topography of the plot of land being used for this project, a small hill behind Hume hall, a snake like structure will be best in tackling the hills. The snake-like pathway will start at the top and flow from east to west, across the hill while still traveling downward. This will make the drop in elevation gradual. Also, the garden will also be enclosed because birds will be utilized in the project, and it will allow for sunlight to be used efficiently. In the beginning of the garden for the blind the participant will be struck with extreme sound. The sound will not be intense in volume, but intense in the quality and depth. I will house birds that will live near the entrance and have loud chirps. It is not vital the birds be of a particular species; however, being that the mockingbird is the state bird of Florida, mockingbirds will be appropriate. Nightingales also have a distinctive call and will be added. In conjunction with this upheaval of sound, the terrain will be altered in the entrance. I will have either gravel or stepping-stones; this lets the participant know that he or she is entering the garden due to the contrast between the land before the entrance and the entrance. Also this uneven terrain should heighten the senses of the participant. Malnar and Vodvarka in Sensory Design suggest that â€Å"uneven terrain/pathways heighten[s] our awareness of surfaces by obliging us to bring our sensory organs into the bes t alignment to perceive them† (104). The flowers that will be present in the entrance will be yellow jasmines and scented geraniums.

Animals In Our Society Essay -- Marketing Animals

â€Å"Much as we might want to understand animals at a level deeper than pop culture, we can only understand them in terms of our own experiences, language and emotions, and interpreted within our social, historical and cultural contexts. The only way we have of understanding animals is to recognize that ‘when we gaze at animals we hold up a mirror to ourselves’ (Corbett, 176). Animal messages are brought to us by the pop culture industry, whose job it is to create, disseminate, and sell meaning. In most cases, they aren’t selling you a moose, but what a moose means to you for example – the characteristics and qualities that you and most people associate with the species. Based on common meanings presented to us from an early age, animals are the perfect shorthand communication symbol. We use animals as devices, metaphors and symbols for a great deal of our expressions and ideas† (Corbett, 179). For years, animals have been at the center of our world; â€Å"the lives of animals and humans have been inextricably intertwined† (Corbett, 178). Thus, based on the close relationship between animals and humans throughout history, in my opinion animals have been used in all cultures to reflect the nature of humanity, symbolizing societal and individual characteristics. The traits of animals are very simple to observe and recognize, whereas human behavior is more intricate and difficult to describe. Animals are familiar creatures to us, which mutely encourage projection of people’s emotions and attitudes onto them. Animals can be used and as we have learned most recently, they are used to convey deep dimensions of human feelings and ideas. When I think of animals, their representation and their symbolism in our society, I immediately think of ani... ...in this piece, would be to dive into researching the answer to this: the fact that there I think there is something very clever to be said about a corporation that uses an animal to talk to its prospects, but are we really sure what that is? Are we sure what to say about a society that listens, and responds to spokescreatures? Perhaps we find them more credible than spokespersons. Do we? Works Cited Corbett, Julia B. Communicating Nature: How We Create and Understand Environmental Messages. Washington, DC: Island, 2006. Print. 2. "Seven Top Animal Symbols Used By Company Name Generators." EzineArticles Submission - Submit Your Best Quality Original Articles For Massive Exposure, Ezine Publishers Get 25 Free Article Reprints. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. .

Good and Evil (a Wrinkle in Time, and Frankenstein Review) Essay

â€Å"Life is neither good or evil, but only a place for good and evil. † – Marcus Aurelius. A Wrinkle in Time is a book about the journey through the war of good versus evil and the ultimate triumph of love. Every character is clearly distinguished with either good or evil: the â€Å"good† characters include Meg, her family, Calvin, the Mrs. W’s, Aunt Beast, and the Happy Medium; the â€Å"evil† characters include IT, The Dark Thing, and the Man with the Red Eyes. Frankenstein, on the other hand, is a story told in a series of letters, as Robert Walton, the captain of a ship bound for the North Pole, recounts to his sister back in England the progress of his dangerous mission. Successful early on, the mission is soon to be disturbed by seas full of impassable ice. Trapped, Walton encounters Victor Frankenstein, who had been travelling by dog-drawn sledge across the ice and is weakened by the cold. Walton take him abroad the ship, helps nurse him back to health, and hears the fantastic tale of the monster the Frankenstein created. This tale that Frankenstein is reciting reveals the two sides that a person, or a living creature can portray: good and evil. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent†, while A Wrinkle in Time was banned for having a fantasy-related genre throughout the plot, including witches and demons. Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. â€Å"Slave, I before reasoned with you, but you have proved yourself unworthy of my condescension. Remember that I have power; you believe yourself miserable, but I can make you so wretched that the light of day will be hateful to you. You are my creator, but I am your master; — obey! † (Shelley 149). In Frankenstein, the monster represents evil, as it comes to life, and terrorizes its creator. Dangerous knowledge is an ideal theme in Frankenstein. The pursuit of knowledge is right in the middle of Frankenstein, as Victor attempts to go beyond accepted human limits and find out the secret of life. Likewise, Robert Walton attempts to pass the past human explorations by being determined to reach the North Pole. In A Wrinkle In Time, comfort and individuality is a major theme that I saw throughout the plot. The main character, Meg, is caught between the desire for conformity and the expression of her own creative nature. At the beginning of the novel Meg feels embittered towards other students at her school that make fun of her and tease her for being different, as well as those who see her little brother as being weird or odd. She desperately wants to be more like her twin brothers who have little problem fitting in. The theme that the two stories share, and that I have mentioned before, is the theme titled good and evil: â€Å"Suddenly there was a great burst of light through the Darkness. The light spread out and where it touched the Darkness the Darkness disappeared. The light spread until the patch of Dark Thing had vanished, and there was only a gentle shining, and through the shining came the stars, clear and pure. Then, slowly, the shining dwindled until it, too, was gone, and there was nothing but stars and starlight. No shadows. No fear. Only the stars and the clear darkness of space, quite different from the fearful darkness of the Thing† (L’Engle 102). It’s interesting that the defeat of the Black Thing doesn’t lead to the universe being lit up like a baseball stadium, but rather to an absence of unnatural darkness. It’s almost like the battle isn’t so much between evil and good as between evil and the normal. Characters are â€Å"Plot is no more than footprints left in the snow after your characters have run by on their way to incredible destinations† – Ray Bradbury. In Frankenstein, the main character or the creator of the monster. Victor becomes obsessed with the idea of creating an artificial human form and eventually attempts to make it. Immediately after creating the monster, he falls into a depression and starts to fear. He leaves the school and returns home to his family, where he finds only tragedy. Not fully aware of the consequences of his creating a new human, he ends up really spending his entire life trying to destroy the same creation he was working to make for so long. In a Wrinkle In Time however, the protagonist is portrayed a bit differently: Meg Murry, The book’s hero, an awkward, but loving high school student who is sent on an adventure through time and space with her brother Charles Wallace and friend Calvin to rescue her father from the evil force that is attempting to take over the universe. Meg’s greatest faults are her anger, impatience, and lack of self-confidence, but she changes and overcomes them, and in the end is victorious, as the story ends with a stereotypical kid’s-story ending. A happy ending for the protagonist. The main differences that I saw between the two are the two protagonists: Meg Murry (A Wrinkle In Time), and Victor Frankenstein (Frankenstein), are to begin with, set in different times. A Wrinkle In Time could be set anywhere in the recent past. Frankenstein however, is set in the late 18th century. The whole concept of Frankenstein is much darker, and in fact I would say it could be classified as gothic science fiction, as the characters are much darker, and seem more serious and cold-hearted by the way Shelley describes them compared to the other book. A Wrinkle In Time is much lighter, as the characters, their actions, and abilities are all easier, and always give the advantage to the â€Å"good guys†. Also the whole concept of the book, and the idea of it, is more for a child’s imagination to handle and comprehend compared to Frankenstein, and I would classify it as plain science and fantasy fiction. Although these differences shape the stories in totally different directions, there are some similarities: The similarities between the characters and their traits are that they both have solid downsides to them. As I mentioned before, Meg’s (A Wrinkle In Time) faults are her temper, impatience, and lack of confidence in herself, and Victor’s (Frankenstein) faults are that he is in a depression and great fear throughout the plot after the Monster is created and is woken. Another trait I can compare between the two protagonists, are their determination to reach their final goal. Although I cannot see it in either book, but both books were officially banned in one place or another for ridiculous reasons. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent† in 1955. Maybe 57 years ago there were different rules and traits a person had to portray to be defined as â€Å"good†, but to make this specific book banned for being â€Å"obscene† (which means that it is offensive or the opposite of accepted manner). A Wrinkle In Time is banned for having witches, crystal balls and demons. Also, because Jesus is listed among the names of great artists, philosophers and teachers, and it is banned in the U. S. â€Å"Thus strangely are our souls constructed, and by such slight ligaments are we bound to prosperity or ruin† (Shelley 37). All in all, these books have more differences than similarities in my opinion. Although both are really good, one is dark while the other is light compared. The similarities that I saw in the characters, the themes, and the reason they were censored are mostly because of the relationship between good and evil throughout it. Studying these two books and the reason for them being banned has surprisingly changed my life in a minor way, as I learned how people from different cultures and education they grew up with react to different things, and I learned to compare and contrast, not only the books, but real life situations such as the South Africans who banned Frankenstein versus my lifestyle and way-of-thinking. â€Å"Life is neither good or evil, but only a place for good and evil. † – Marcus Aurelius. A Wrinkle in Time is a book about the journey through the war of good versus evil and the ultimate triumph of love. Every character is clearly distinguished with either good or evil: the â€Å"good† characters include Meg, her family, Calvin, the Mrs. W’s, Aunt Beast, and the Happy Medium; the â€Å"evil† characters include IT, The Dark Thing, and the Man with the Red Eyes. Frankenstein, on the other hand, is a story told in a series of letters, as Robert Walton, the captain of a ship bound for the North Pole, recounts to his sister back in England the progress of his dangerous mission. Successful early on, the mission is soon to be disturbed by seas full of impassable ice. Trapped, Walton encounters Victor Frankenstein, who had been travelling by dog-drawn sledge across the ice and is weakened by the cold. Walton take him abroad the ship, helps nurse him back to health, and hears the fantastic tale of the monster the Frankenstein created. This tale that Frankenstein is reciting reveals the two sides that a person, or a living creature can portray: good and evil. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent†, while A Wrinkle in Time was banned for having a fantasy-related genre throughout the plot, including witches and demons. Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. â€Å"Slave, I before reasoned with you, but you have proved yourself unworthy of my condescension. Remember that I have power; you believe yourself miserable, but I can make you so wretched that the light of day will be hateful to you. You are my creator, but I am your master; — obey! † (Shelley 149). In Frankenstein, the monster represents evil, as it comes to life, and terrorizes its creator. Dangerous knowledge is an ideal theme in Frankenstein. The pursuit of knowledge is right in the middle of Frankenstein, as Victor attempts to go beyond accepted human limits and find out the secret of life. Likewise, Robert Walton attempts to pass the past human explorations by being determined to reach the North Pole. In A Wrinkle In Time, comfort and individuality is a major theme that I saw throughout the plot. The main character, Meg, is caught between the desire for conformity and the expression of her own creative nature. At the beginning of the novel Meg feels embittered towards other students at her school that make fun of her and tease her for being different, as well as those who see her little brother as being weird or odd. She desperately wants to be more like her twin brothers who have little problem fitting in. The theme that the two stories share, and that I have mentioned before, is the theme titled good and evil: â€Å"Suddenly there was a great burst of light through the Darkness. The light spread out and where it touched the Darkness the Darkness disappeared. The light spread until the patch of Dark Thing had vanished, and there was only a gentle shining, and through the shining came the stars, clear and pure. Then, slowly, the shining dwindled until it, too, was gone, and there was nothing but stars and starlight. No shadows. No fear. Only the stars and the clear darkness of space, quite different from the fearful darkness of the Thing† (L’Engle 102). It’s interesting that the defeat of the Black Thing doesn’t lead to the universe being lit up like a baseball stadium, but rather to an absence of unnatural darkness. It’s almost like the battle isn’t so much between evil and good as between evil and the normal. Characters are â€Å"Plot is no more than footprints left in the snow after your characters have run by on their way to incredible destinations† – Ray Bradbury. In Frankenstein, the main character or the creator of the monster. Victor becomes obsessed with the idea of creating an artificial human form and eventually attempts to make it. Immediately after creating the monster, he falls into a depression and starts to fear. He leaves the school and returns home to his family, where he finds only tragedy. Not fully aware of the consequences of his creating a new human, he ends up really spending his entire life trying to destroy the same creation he was working to make for so long. In a Wrinkle In Time however, the protagonist is portrayed a bit differently: Meg Murry, The book’s hero, an awkward, but loving high school student who is sent on an adventure through time and space with her brother Charles Wallace and friend Calvin to rescue her father from the evil force that is attempting to take over the universe. Meg’s greatest faults are her anger, impatience, and lack of self-confidence, but she changes and overcomes them, and in the end is victorious, as the story ends with a stereotypical kid’s-story ending. A happy ending for the protagonist. The main differences that I saw between the two are the two protagonists: Meg Murry (A Wrinkle In Time), and Victor Frankenstein (Frankenstein), are to begin with, set in different times. A Wrinkle In Time could be set anywhere in the recent past. Frankenstein however, is set in the late 18th century. The whole concept of Frankenstein is much darker, and in fact I would say it could be classified as gothic science fiction, as the characters are much darker, and seem more serious and cold-hearted by the way Shelley describes them compared to the other book. A Wrinkle In Time is much lighter, as the characters, their actions, and abilities are all easier, and always give the advantage to the â€Å"good guys†. Also the whole concept of the book, and the idea of it, is more for a child’s imagination to handle and comprehend compared to Frankenstein, and I would classify it as plain science and fantasy fiction. Although these differences shape the stories in totally different directions, there are some similarities: The similarities between the characters and their traits are that they both have solid downsides to them. As I mentioned before, Meg’s (A Wrinkle In Time) faults are her temper, impatience, and lack of confidence in herself, and Victor’s (Frankenstein) faults are that he is in a depression and great fear throughout the plot after the Monster is created and is woken. Another trait I can compare between the two protagonists, are their determination to reach their final goal. Although I cannot see it in either book, but both books were officially banned in one place or another for ridiculous reasons. Frankenstein was banned in South Africa for being â€Å"obscene† and â€Å"indecent† in 1955. Maybe 57 years ago there were different rules and traits a person had to portray to be defined as â€Å"good†, but to make this specific book banned for being â€Å"obscene† (which means that it is offensive or the opposite of accepted manner). A Wrinkle In Time is banned for having witches, crystal balls and demons. Also, because Jesus is listed among the names of great artists, philosophers and teachers, and it is banned in the U. S. â€Å"Thus strangely are our souls constructed, and by such slight ligaments are we bound to prosperity or ruin† (Shelley 37). All in all, these books have more differences than similarities in my opinion. Although both are really good, one is dark while the other is light compared. The similarities that I saw in the characters, the themes, and the reason they were censored are mostly because of the relationship between good and evil throughout it. Studying these two books and the reason for them being banned has surprisingly changed my life in a minor way, as I learned how people from different cultures and education they grew up with react to different things, and I learned to compare and contrast, not only the books, but real life situations such as the South Africans who banned Frankenstein versus my lifestyle and way-of-thinking.