School Systems in Japan India and the US

This site is an first-class one to utilize in that it defines what a typical school twelvemonth looks like in England. This site besides describes what the standardised testing that is required for each pupil, what vacations are observed during the school twelvemonth, and when pupils are able to go forth school. This web site was written by a former instructor at the school. Bing a instructor, Ms. Barrow was able to easy depict how the educational system works in England. ( Barrow, 2009 ) Combs, K. & A ; Angela Bartlett. ( 2007, October ) . Education in Japan. Retrieved from www.education-in-japan.info This website gives an first-class overview of the school system in Japan and what the national course of study is in Japan. This site besides explains how the Japanese came up with the current system of primary, in-between and high schools. This site besides explains the learning doctrine in Japan and the four key functions pupils have in modern Nipponese schooling. This site was started by two adult females who wanted to explicate how the instruction system worked in Japan. They lived in Japan for a clip and wanted to assist people who were either traveling to Japan or non-Japanese people populating in Japan understand the school system. ( Combs & A ; Bartlett, 2007 ) Education system in India. ( 1998 ) . Retrieved from www.indiaedu.com/education-india/education-system-india.html This website gives an overview of the instruction system in India. This site besides talks about the universalization of an simple instruction in India and why it has non to the full occurred. It tells at what age a pupil is required to go to school and at what age they are allowed to go forth school. This site besides gives stats demoing the literacy rate between males/females and rural/urban countries. This site was started by a company that is based in India and was started in order to supply resources for the people of India to be able to obtain higher instruction grades. ( â€Å" Education system in, † 1998 ) Miller, D.C. , Sen, A. , Malley, L.B. , Burns, S.D. , & A ; Owen, E. US Department of Education, ( 2009 ) . Comparative indexs of instruction in the us and other g-8 states: 2009. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. This article compares the G-8 states and gives statistics demoing where the United States falls in assorted classs such as subject jobs, and entire population, per centum of pupils enrolled in formal instruction. There are besides statistics comparing instructor experience in the United States and the United Kingdom. This article besides goes on to give really elaborate information on the school systems of each of the G-8 states, which include Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Because this article was written by people in the US Department of Education, it should be accurate and timely. ( Miller, Sen, Malley, Burns, & A ; Owen, 2009 ) Osgood, R. L. ( n.d. ) . Dawdlers, idiots, human cinders and other curious childs: progressivism and pupil differences in determining public instruction in the united provinces. Unpublished manuscript, Muskingum University. This was a address given by Mr. Osgood which explicating how labels ( both good and bad ) were applied to pupils in the United States and how these labels affected their public presentation in school. Mr. Osgood went back to a book published in the early 1900 ‘s to obtain some of the background for his address. He talks about how labeling pupils either helped them stand out or keep them back from accomplishing ends in school. He besides spoke on how labels changed since the early 1900 ‘s. For illustration, a pupil, in the early 1900 ‘s, who was falling behind in school was called a dawdler. Today, he would necessitate particular instruction categories which would cement the label of being slow. Mr. Osgood was President of Muskingum University in New Concord, Ohio and an pedagogue so he is a believable beginning. ( Osgood ) Ruddock, G. & A ; Sainsbury, M. ( 2008 ) . Comparison of the Core Primary Curriculum in England to those of Other High Performing Countries. Department for Children, Schools, & A ; Families. This article was written by two bookmans in England who were comparing the instruction given to English kids from ages 7 – 11 to kids from around the universe. This article focuses on three chief countries, Mathematicss, Science and Literacy. The bookmans found that in Mathematics, the stuff was similar to the eight other states included in this survey. In Science, the bookmans discovered many assortments of course of study. No 1 was perceived to be better than any other. In literacy, the bookmans discovered that the other states were more likely to include the doctrine and principle behind the linguistic communication where in England, this was instead brief. This paper was written by two bookmans by petition of one of the British Government Departments. School old ages in England. ( n.d. ) . Retrieved from www.learnenglish.de/culture/educationculture.htm This website gives a elaborate listing of what ages are in what classs. It besides explains the difference of a Public school and a Government tally school. This site besides explains what national testing is done at what age degree and at what age a pupil is allowed to go forth school. This site was written to let non-English speech production people to larn English. All of the information obtained on this site was able to corroborate information received on other web sites refering to the English Education system. ( â€Å" School old ages in, † ) Schutz, G. , West, M.R. , and Wobmann, L. ( 2007 ) , â€Å" School Accountability, Autonomy, Choice, and the Equity of Student Achievement: International Evidence from PIDA 2003 † , OECD Education Working Papers, No. 14, OECD Publishing. Department of the Interior: 10.1787/246374511832 This article explains the doctrine that if a kid succeeds in schools so they will win later in life. This article besides explains whether supervising instructor lessons has any impact on pupil public presentation. This article talks about holding issue tests before a kid is allowed to go forth school and if that is a productive thought or non. This article besides touches on the thought that kids with low socio-economic alterations achieve every bit much as those with high socio-economic alterations. OECD, or Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, is a authorities organisation in France and should be a really dependable beginning for this paper. ( Schutz, G. , 2007 ) Schmidt, W. H. , Houang, R. , & A ; Shakrani, S. ( 2009 ) . International lessons about national criterions. Thomas B Fordham Institute. This article, written by three writers at the Thomas B Fordham Institute, gives information refering to the Indian School System. It provides more information refering how the Indian Government perceives instruction and how the schools are funded. It besides explains the National Curriculum that India has and who is responsible for implementing that the course of study is followed. It explains who comes up with the course of study for each topic, what topics are taught in what schools and when national tests are given. The Thomas B Fordham Institute is an organisation that wants to progress educational excellence for every kid. ( Schmidt, Houang, & A ; Shakrani, 2009 ) Wieczorek, C. C. ( 2009 ) . Comparative analysis of instruction systems of American & A ; Nipponese schools: positions and visions. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Foreign Languages, University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio. This article explains how the Japanese and the United States school systems are similar, but it besides explains how they are different. The writer ne'er comes out and says which is better, but he does indicate out that the United States seems to hold more troubles to get the better of. This writer wrote this paper as a consequence of an assignment for a category he was taking at the University. Some of the information that was given in this paper could be verified by other beginnings. ( Wieczorek, 2009 ) World Bank, ( 2000 ) . Investing in instruction: analysis of the 1999 universe instruction indexs, instruction and accomplishments Washington, DC: Retrieved from www.electrade.gfi.fr/cgi-bin/OECDBookshop.storefront This article explains in item how the instruction system in India plants. It explains what ages are in what school each age is assigned. This article besides explains how the federal authorities and the provincial and regional authoritiess are involved in the instruction system. The World Bank is an organisation overseen by the United Nations. The information presented by them should be every bit accurate as possible. ( World Bank, 2000 )

D’Leon Inc. Case Study Essay

D’Leon Incorporated is a small food producer that specializes in high-quality pecan and other nut products sold in the snack-foods market. In 2004, D’Leon’s president, Al Watkins, decided to undertake a major expansion to become more competitive within their market. The following report describes some of the financial effects that this expansion has had on the company. D’Leon began its expansion by doubling its plant capacity, opening new sales offices, and investing in an expensive advertising campaign. Watkins felt that they had superior products to the competition and that he could charge a premium price for their products to result in increased sales, profits, and stock price. The results, however, were unsatisfactory. Sales were below and costs were above all initial projections. These results have raised questions about the expansion and also caused concern among the Board of Directors and the major shareholders about the future of the company. Part I of this report analyzes D’Leon’s financial statements from 2004 and 2005. It describes some of the effects of the expansion on the financials of the company and some of the problems that have arisen with their current financial position. Net operating profit decreased, but operating working capital and total operating capital have shown increases. Sales had a considerable increase, but net income decreased. D’Leon’s financials also indicated a decrease in cash flow due to the company spending more cash than they were taking in. These changes are subsequently resulting in decreased stock prices and a deteriorating financial position which is concerning both management and shareholders. Part II of this report discusses the ratio analysis of D’Leon’s financial statements. It begins by explaining the five major categories of financial ratios: Liquidity, Asset Management, Debt Management, Profitability, and Market Value. While most of the 2005 ratios have shown significant declines and are below industry averages, the 2006 projections look promising for the company and are showing significant increases. Part II continues with a discussion of some of the limitations of financial ratios as comparison tools and concludes with a brief discussion of D’Leon’s credit issues and a  summary of the company’s 2006 projections. It is recommended that D’Leon Inc. conduct in-depth financial research and perform an extensive ratio analysis of their financial position before deciding to undergo any further expansions. Doing this could greatly help the managers in their decision-making and aide in determining the effects of any future expansions on the financial stability of the company. Sales In addition to expanding the company, D’Leon’s president, Al Watkins, felt that the company’s products were of a higher quality than the competitions and that he could charge a premium price, resulting in greatly increased sales and profits. Following the expansion, D’Leon did see a sales increase of $2,602,000 , a 75.8% increase over the previous year. Even though the company did experience a sales increase, liabilities such as accounts and notes payable increased, resulting in decreased profits. Net Operating Profit after Taxes Net Operating Profit after Taxes (NOPAT) is a company’s after-tax operating profit for all investors, including shareholders and debt holders. NOPAT represents the company’s operating profit that would accrue to shareholders if the company had no debt. Unfortunately, due the increased debt and liabilities associated with the expansion, D’Leon’s NOPAT experienced a significant decrease of 168.8% from $114,257 to -$78,569. Net Operating Working Capita lNet Operating Working Capital (NOWC) is a financial metric representing the amount of day-by-day operating liquidity available to a business. NOWC is calculated by subtracting a company’s non-interest bearing current liabilities from their current assets. An increase in working capital indicates that the business has either increased current assets by receiving cash or other current assets, or has decreased current liabilities, by possibly paying off some short-term creditors. As a result of D’Leon’s increased sales from the expansion, the company has experienced an increase in NOWC from $842,400 to $913,042. This is an increase of about 8.4%. This increase is good because it’s a positive indicator that the firm is able to continue its operations and that it has sufficient cash flow to satisfy both maturing short-term debt and upcoming operational expenses. Total Operating Capital Total Operating Capital is simply the addition of a company’s net fixed assets to the NOWC. D’Leon’s expansion generated a significant increase in the company’s net fixed assets of almost three times the previous years. This figure added to the NOWC generated a 56.1% increase in total operating capital from $1,187,200 to $1,852,832. Net Income Net income, or profit, is the income that a firm has after subtracting costs and expenses from the total revenue. It can be distributed among holders of common stock as a dividend or held by the firm as retained earnings. Once again, however, due to the significant increase in costs and expenses such as notes and accounts payable, D’Leon had a negative net income in 2005. They experienced a decrease of 282.1% from $87,960 to  -$160,176. Cash Flows Cash flow refers to the amount of cash being received and paid by a business during a defined period of time. The measurement of cash flow can be used to determine and evaluate such things as problems with liquidity and the state or performance of a business. It can also be used to generate project rate-of-returns and to examine income or growth of a business when it is believed that accrual accounting concepts do not represent economic realities. In this report, cash flows will be categorized into three components: net cash flow, operating cash flow, and free cash flow. †¢Net cash flow (NCF), the measure of a company’s financial health, equals the cash receipts minus cash payments over a given period of time. It can be considered money that is available for expansion, research and development, or retained as cash reserves. From 2004 to 2005, D’Leon’s net cash flow decreased dramatically by 140.4%. This decrease in funds needed for the expansion is causing great concern with the major shareholders of the company over the future of D’Leon Inc. †¢Operating cash flow (OCF) is the cash flow from operating activities. It refers to the amount of cash a company generates from the revenues it brings in minus the costs associated with long-term investment on capital items or investment in securities. The company experienced a 71.2% decrease in OCF from the previous year. †¢Free cash flow (FCF) is the cash flow actually available for payment to investors. The value of a company’s operations depends on its expected future free cash flows. This is another cause for concern for D’Leon’s major shareholders because, following the expansion, the FCF decreased dramatically to -$744,201. Market Value AddedMarket Value Added (MVA) is the difference between the current market value of a firm and the capital contributed by investors. If MVA is positive, the firm has added value. If it is negative, the firm has destroyed value. The expansion of D’Leon has decreased their MVA. This can  be seen in that the stock price has decreased over the past year by about 73.5%. In order for MVA to increase, the amount of value added needs to be greater than the firm’s investors could have achieved investing in the market portfolio. SECTION 2: Working CapitalA good indicator of a company’s health is its working capital. The working capital represents the amount of operating liquidity that is available to a business and is calculated as current assets minus current liabilities. A company can be endowed with assets and profitability, but short of liquidity, if these assets cannot readily be converted into cash. Section 2 of this report focuses on the three components of current assets: sales, receivables, and purchases. SalesThe objective of any business is to create or increase profits through sales. One way that D’Leon might increase sales would be to offer 60-day credit terms to their customers rather than the 30-day credit terms that they currently offer. If sales were to double as a result of the change in their credit policy, the cash account would initially decrease because they would have to build up their inventory to support the increased sales. This would result in an increase in accounts receivable. Over time, D’Leon’s cash account would eventually begin to rise as collections increased. One downfall to this option, however, would be if the competitors learned of the change and began to offer similar credit terms to their customers. If this were to happen, D’Leon’s sales would remain constant, resulting in its cash account decreasing and its accounts receivable increasing. ReceivablesDay-to-day business at D’Leon, just as in any other business, consists of them spending money. They spend money for labor, materials, and fixed assets needed to make products to sell. The sale of these products result in receivables, which are simply the billing of customers who owe money to the company for the goods that have been provided. The receivables eventually generate cash as the outstanding bills are paid by the customers. Because of this process, D’Leon’s cash account has decreased dramatically due to the company spending more cash than it is taking in. Because of this, it appears that the sales price does not exceed its costs per unit sold.  This has a negative effect on the cash balance because, as stated above, more cash is going out than is coming in. PurchasesD’Leon purchases its materials on 30-day terms, meaning that it is supposed to pay for its purchases within 30 days of receipt. Judging by D’Leon’s 2005 balance sheet , its suppliers probably do not get paid on time. This conclusion can be made from the fact that sales have only increased by about 76% over the past year while accounts payable have increased by about 260%. SECTION 3: Problems AnalysisAdditional questions and problems have raised concern among the board members and the major shareholders of D’Leon Incorporated. Section 3 of this report focuses on these issues as well as options that the company might pursue to ensure a healthy financial future. Cash ProblemsThe expansion at D’Leon weakened their financial strength. Because the company issued long-term debt rather than common stock for the funding, it appears that it has financed its expansion with external capital rather than with internally generated funds. Due to the significant increase in receivables, even if it had broke even in 2005, D’Leon would still experience a cash shortage requiring it to raise external capital to finance its increase in assets. Regarding the company’s physical stock, the question has been raised to depreciate them over 7 years rather than 10 years. Unfortunately, this change would not affect the physical stock. The balance sheet account for fixed assets, however, would decrease due to the increasing accumulated depreciation. The company’s reported net income would decrease and the decrease in tax payments would result in an increased cash position. Stock IssuesEarnings per share (EPS) are the earnings returned on the initial investment amount. It is calculated by dividing net income by shares outstanding. Dividends per share are calculated by dividing dividends by shares outstanding. Book value per share is calculated by common equity divided by shares outstanding. The market price per share of a stock does not equal the book value per share because the market value reflects future  profits, while the book value per share represents historical cost of the stock. Tax IssuesFor businesses, interest paid is tax deductible. This is because it is considered an expense and is paid out of pre-tax income. Dividends paid, however, are paid out of after-tax income. Interested earned is subject to income taxes because it is part of the company’s taxable income. Dividends received are also taxed as part of the ordinary income. For corporations, Capital gains are taxed as ordinary income. D’Leon was able to use Tax Loss Carry-Back and Carry-Forward Provisions to receive a tax refund because of its net loss of -$160,178 in 2005. PART II:Financial StatementAnalysisSECTION 1: Ratio AnalysisThe primary goal of any business is to maximize its value. In order to do this, it must take advantage of its strengths and correct its weaknesses. Businesses do this by first comparing their performance to other businesses in the same industry and secondly by evaluating trends in their financial position over time. This evaluation is done through ratio analysis . Ratio Analysis is simply a tool used by individuals to conduct a quantitative analysis of information in a company’s financial statements. These ratios are calculated from current year numbers and are then compared to previous years, other companies, the industry, or even the economy to judge the performance of the company. These calculations provide assistance in decision-making, reduce reliance on guesswork and intuition, and establish a basis for sound judgment. The following section discusses the five major categories of financial ratios. LiquidityLiquidity refers to an asset’s ability to be easily converted through the act of buying or selling. A liquid asset can be bought or sold rapidly without causing a significant movement in the price and with minimum loss of value. Liquidity ratios are calculations that show the relationship of a company’s cash and other current assets to its current liabilities. These ratios include the current ratio and the quick ratio. By looking at D’Leon Inc.’s quick ratio for 2004 and 2005, it is clear that their liquidity has decreased, but it is projected to increase in 2006. Asset ManagementAsset management ratios are another group of financial calculations that measure how effectively a company is managing its assets. These ratios attempt to answer the question â€Å"Does the amount each type of asset seem reasonable, too high, or too low in view of current and projected sales?† If a business has too many assets, its cost of capital will be too high and its profits will be depressed. If assets are too low, however, profitable sales will be lost. Asset management ratios include inventory turnover, days sales outstanding (DSO), fixed assets turnover, and total assets turnover. D’Leon’s inventory turnover and total assets turnover are below the industry average, but their DSO is above the industry average. Their fixed assts turnover, however, is above the industry average. By the inventory turnover ratio being low, it appears that the firm either has excessive or obsolete inventory. If inventory were reduced, their current asset and turnover ratios would improve and the debt ratio would reduce even further, increasing D’Leon’s profitability. If D’Leon were to improve its collection procedures and lower its DSO to the 32-day average, the effects would ripple through the financial statements and free up over $250,000 in cash that would, in turn, raise their stock price. Debt ManagementDebt management is also referred to as financial leverage. Financial leverage is the using of given resources in such a way that the potential positive or negative outcome is magnified. It most generally refers to using debt, or borrowed funds, in an attempt to increase the returns to equity. Financial leverage can allow greater potential returns to the investor than would have otherwise been available. The potential for loss is also greater, however, because repayment of the loan principle and all accrued interest is still required if the investment becomes worthless. Debt management ratios include times-interest-earned (TIE) and EBITDA coverage. D’Leon’s expected TIE for 2006 is much improve over its 2004 and 2005 levels and is above the industry average. Their EBITDA has also improved, but is still below the industry average. ProfitabilityProfitability ratios reflect the combined effects of liquidity, asset management, and debt. It measures a company’s use of its assets and  control of its expenses to generate an acceptable rate of return. For most of these ratios, having a higher value relative to a competitor’s ratio or the same ratio from a previous period is indicative that the company is doing well. Profitability ratios include profit margin on sales, return on total assets (ROA), basic earning power, (BEP), and return on common equity, (ROE). D’Leon’s profit margin is above 2004 and 2005 levels and is slightly above the industry average. Their BEP, ROA, and ROE ratios have also increased from the previous year, but are all still below the industry average. Market ValueMarket Value Ratios are the calculations that relate a company’s stock price to its earnings, cash flow, and book value per share. These ratios give management an indication of what investors think of the company’s risk and future prospects. If all of the previously discussed ratios look good, and if these conditions have been stable over time, then the market value ratios will be high, the stock price will probably be high, and management has been doing a good job. Market value ratios include price/earnings (P/E), price/cash flow, and market/book (M/B) ratios. All of these ratios at D’Leon Inc. are above the previous years level, but are all below the industry average. SECTION 2: Financial Ratio LimitationsWhen evaluating a company, analysts recognize that they must consider certain qualitative factors . These factors are:†¢Are the company’s revenues tied to one key customer?†¢To what extent are the company’s revenues tied to one key product?†¢To what extent does the company rely on a single supplier?†¢What percentage of the company’s business is generated overseas?†¢Competition†¢Future prospects†¢Legal and regulatory environmentWhile these factors must be considered for all company’s alike, not all company’s can be compared equally when it comes to their financials. There are a number of limitations to using financial ratios as a tool for comparison. One such limitation is that company’s use different operating and accounting practices and procedures. This could cause distortion in comparisons. Another possible cause of distortion between ratio comparisons is seasonal factors. Industry average comparisons can be made difficult if company’s operate many different divisions. Another  major issue is that a company may not always know whether the ratios that they are comparing theirs with are good or bad because some company’s use certain techniques to make their financial statements and ratios appear better than they actual are. SECTION 3: Problems and DiscussionCredit IssuesIn 2005, D’Leon paid its suppliers much later than the due date, and it was not maintaining financial ratios at levels called for in its bank loan agreement. There was concern that this behavior would lead to the suppliers cutting the company off and refusing to renew the loan when it comes due. Even though the company’s projected ratios appear to be improving, the credit manager will most likely not be able to extend credit to it. However, the bank will mostly likely not demand repayment because this could for D’Leon into bankruptcy. Financial ProjectionsUsing the extended Du Pont equation, we find that D’Leon has an ROE of nearly 13%. Looking at the 2006 projections in Appendix F on page 16, we see that the company’s strengths include above industry average fixed assets turnover and profit margin. D’Leon also significantly reduced it debt ratio, resulting in a decreased interest expense and improved TIE ratio. Some of the company’s weaknesses include poor asset management ratios, EBITDA coverage, profitability ratios, and market value ratios. I would have recommended that the company perform an extensive ratio analysis of its current financial position before taking on any expansion plans. This could have immensely helped managers to determine the effects of the expansion on the financial stability of the company. Brigham, Eugene F., and Joel F. Houston. Fundamentals of Financial Management. â€Å"D’Leon Inc., Chapter 4 spreadsheet module†. Made available on July 1, 2008 by Dr. Richard Constand. Brigham, Eugene F., and Joel F. Houston. Fundamentals of Financial Management. Thomson: South-Western Publishers, Eleventh Ed. 2007.

Bilingualism and Biculturalism

Bilingualism and biculturalism are intertwined terms that have influenced the social model of modern society. As everyday passes by, the world keeps getting smaller and we continue conforming to the cultural norms of the global society. While bilingualism helps us to keep our native language intact, biculturalism reminds of our true roots. In a world with diminishing cultural boundary lines, bilingualism and biculturalism are critical factors that help preserve one’s cultural identity. Bilingualism Bilingualism is basically the ability to comprehend and effectively communicate in two languages.However, various experts have their own definition of bilingualism with certain nuances. For instance, a bilingual is one who is recognized as a native speaker by natives of both languages, according to a French linguist named Thiery (Chan 2). In recent times, the ability to construct and express complete, meaningful sentences is considered adequate for one to achieve bilingualism. B. Wa ys to measure bilingualism Bilingualism can be measured by evaluating the level of mastery of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in both languages.Most bilinguals have superior command over one language compared to the other, as it is not very common for an individual to have equal mastery of both languages. Likewise, some bilinguals can understand a language better than they speak it; they are commonly referred to as receiving bilinguals. It is generally accepted among the linguist community that knowing a minimum of five thousand words in a language is necessary to carry out effective communication. C. Types of bilingualismVarious types of bilingualism have been found to exist as linguists continue to study the reasons and methods governing the existence of bilingualism. Sometimes, learning a second language might lead to the deterioration of ones native language. This negative impact over a person’s native language is called as subtractive bilingualism. Howeve r, if second language proficiency is achieved without causing any negative impact one’s mother tongue, then it is known as additive bilingualism. When an individual’s communication skills improve in general from the mastery of a second language, it is known as ascendant bilingualism.In countries where people speaking a certain language are frowned upon, there is a tendency to conceal one’s native language owing to the fear of being stigmatized. This phenomenon is known as covert bilingualism. On the other hand, some nations in the world have two official languages, as a result of having people from different cultural backgrounds speaking two different languages. Although not all people in the country speak or understand both the languages, such a country is known to exhibit societal bilingualism.Bilingualism can be classified into infant bilingualism and artificial bilingualism, based on the nature of acquiring bilingualism. Infant bilingualism is a native way o f acquiring both languages simultaneously, right from a very early age when a child begins to talk. This way of acquiring bilingualism would most probably result in one attaining almost equal proficiency in both languages. This is possible when both languages are natural part of the child’s environment. This usually happens when each parent is a native speaker of one language or if the parents are proficient in both languages.This way, the child finds both languages natural since he/she is exposed to it since birth. Artificial bilingualism is a phenomenon according to which parents consciously try to pass on a language that is not either of their mother tongues, to the children. This could be a result of societal or cultural pressure to speak the language like a native speaker. Artificial bilingualism can have a negative impact if the parents try to force a language that they are not proficient at it, since this could lead the children to form an improper language model.D. Bi culturalism Biculturalism enables an individual to possess native-like knowledge of two cultures present in his/her country. Hence, a bicultural person would have the ability to relate to members of both cultures as well as act according to the demands of both cultures. True biculturalism is said to have been achieved if a person inherently feels like a part of both cultures. E. Biculturalism in society Biculturalism usually exists in a country where two different cultures or cultural identities are allowed to freely flourish within the society.It is characterized by widespread occupation of people belonging to two diverse cultures. However, true biculturalism cannot exist in a country where one culture is suppressed or discriminated. Bicultural countries have official policies to protect the interest of both cultures. It also facilitates equitable status and rights to people belonging to both cultures without any prejudice. These countries also celebrate festivals pertaining to bot h cultures to preserve integrity of both cultures and foster the spirit of togetherness. E. 1 Biculturalism in CanadaCanada follows a policy of official bilingualism as its gives equal status to both English and French in its parliament and courts. This was done to preserve the cultural identity of French communities in Canada, as support for the French language in Canada had weakened and English had become the preferred language in business and politics, by the end of the nineteenth century. As the years passed by, Francophone communities outside of Quebec begun to realize the extinction of their culture was inevitable, unless French-based education was made a top priority.Certain political forces in Quebec had also wanted a separate state during the 1960s. Franco-Albertans living in Quebec called for bilingualism and biculturalism to ensure that Canada stayed united. This led to the proclamation of the Official Languages Act of 1969 announcing Canada as a bilingual nation (Alberta ’s Francophone Heritage 3). Today, Franco-Albertans are entitled to exclusive French-only education according to rights guaranteed by Bilingualism and Biculturalism Commission, while French is also now used in government offices and hospitals in Alberta.All these developments with respect to biculturalism have kept Canada together as one nation and led to the revival of the French culture. E. 2 Biculturalism in Australia Australia was originally inhabited only by several indigenous tribes, until the Europeans settlers started to immigrate there. These relatively new settlers started to control the ethnicity of the immigrants settling down to ensure that Australia had a cultural identity of a British Colony. Until 1973, the governments empowered by the Immigration Restriction Act followed the White Australia policy to keep a check on non-European immigration.The racial injustice perpetrated by the White Australia policy official came to end by passing of the Racial Discriminat ion Act in 1975. Australia started to rigorously follow a bicultural policy similar to Canada, opening its doors to several thousands of immigrants from all over the world. The extent of Australia’s multicultural policy can be better understood from a 2005 Department of Immigration statistic which reports that forty percent of the contributing workforce in Australia had at least one parent born outside of Australia, while twenty-five percent of them were not originally born in Australia (Wikiepedia 9).Australian values of ‘mateship’ centered on equality, loyalty and friendship, have enshrined in its biculturalism policy and given equal rights to all Australian citizens irrespective of their ethnicity. Multiculturalism was initially perceived as the acceptance of people coming from different cultural backgrounds as members of Australian society. However, the significance of biculturalism has now deepened and empowered immigrants in Australia to express their cultu ral identity, thereby enabling them to experience both Australian culture as well as their native culture. E.3 Biculturalism in the United States America, in spite of being one of most culturally diverse nations in the world and built on values of equality, does not officially have a federal multiculturalism policy. That being said, America does practices biculturalism on a social level as immigrants from various countries are freely allowed to practice their religion and exhibit their cultural identity. The Hart-Cellar Act of 1965 nullified quotas based on one’s national origin. Since then, more twenty twenty-eight million people immigrants have legally been accepted by the United States of America.Bilingualism is also prevalent is certain Southern states that are heavily populated with Spanish-speaking immigrants. F. The relationship of bilingualism to biculturalism Bilingualism and biculturalism are concepts that are very closely tied together. Bilingualism not only helps one to connect and effectively communicate with the society around him/her, but also enables a person to maintain command over his/her native language. Since language is the key to stay in touch with one’s ethic or national culture, bilingualism helps foster biculturalism as well.F. 1. Origin of bilingualism in bicultural societies Canada was one of the pioneers of the New World to officially adopt the policy of bilingualism. In 1867, British North America Act was passed to legalize to conversing in English as well as French in Canadian Parliament as well as Courts of Law, thereby paving the way for a bicultural state. As the world’s political climate began to change during the beginning of the twentieth century, the idea of cultural pluralism started to gain momentum.Biculturalism began in western world and paved the way for biculturalism to be adopted as a political policy in many other parts of the world. F. 2. Bilingual education Bilingual education is a method of teaching all subjects to students through a country’s primary language as well as the student’s native language. There are several types of approaches and programs available to carry out bilingual education. Transitional programs teach all subjects in the students’ native language and English is taught as a separate subject until bilingual students can study along with other native students in normal classrooms.Dual Language programs consist of an equal combination of students who are native English speakers as well students who have another common native language. These methods enable all students in the class to be bilingual and understand subject matter in both languages. Late-exit program is yet another method that is quite similar to transitional programs, but it also teaches all the subjects in English again to reinforce the subject content and achieve effective bilingualism. It is hard to generalize and develop a common plan to educate bilingual students. For instance, in the US, young immigrants are either more educated or less educated native-born American students since immigrants from Asian countries are relatively well-educated compared to their South American counterparts, as a result of to social and economic differences. Language maintenance and Language shift Language maintenance is an effort to preserve the linguistic ability of child in his/her native language, while not compromising on learning the popular secondary language at school. It is can result from a passion for one’s culture or a necessity to communicate with elder members in the family.Career prospects due to international acclaim or the availability of media services such as television programs or books in one’s native could also cause language maintenance. The avoidance of one’s native language is known as language shift. For instance, bilingual children may stop using their mother tongue owing to a higher degree of English exposure in sc hool. Other factors that influence language shift are fear of one’s native language negatively influencing their English language skills or learning abilities.Lack of parental encouragement to maintain one’s native language can also lead to language shift. G. Transference Transference occurs when a person’s native language negatively influences the way he/she uses another language or vice-versa. This influence can occur in the form of distinctive oral expressions i. e. accent or odd sentence compositions. It is classified into lexical, phonological, semantic, prosodic, tonemic, syntactic and pragmatic transferences.CONCLUSIONThe concepts of bilingualism and biculturalism are two critical aspects that have held together societies comprising of several cultures, languages, races and ethnic backgrounds. Since transference or the deviation from the norms of a language could lead to language shift, proper bilingual education has to be provided to ensure that one is c omfortable using both languages. Bilingualism, the preservation of one’s native language accompanied by command over a country’s primary language, is necessary to achieve biculturalism in a society as well retaining one’s true cultural identity.References A Research Guide for Students. (1998-2006). Retrieved March 20, 2008. http://www. aresearchguide. com/1steps. html Bilingualism and Biculturalism. Retrieved March 20, 2008, from Alberta’s Francophone Heritage. http://www. edukits. ca/francophone/en/secondary/infomatics_text_bilingualism. html Chan, K. (1998). Bilingualism and Biculturalism. Retrieved March 20, 2008, from Academia. http://www. geocities. com/goktimus/bilingualism. html Multiculturalism. Retrieved March 20, 2008, from Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Multiculturalism

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